The wave of liberal ideas and the political and social changes brought about by the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the unprecedented economic growth of the 19th and 20th centuries generated strong reactions. What arguments were used by the representatives of these movements, the so-called reactionaries?

Albert O. Hirschman studied three waves of reactionary thought: against the French Revolution in the 18th century, against democracy in the 19th century, and against the welfare state in the 20th. He finds that reactionary rhetoric always employs the following three arguments: 1) the argument of unintended consequences – every attempt to improve political, social, and economic conditions actually produces the exact opposite effect; 2) the argument of futility – no effort to change society affects the status quo even minimally; 3) the argument of risk – new reforms must be prevented because they endanger significant achievements of the past.

With a witty spirit and subtle irony, Hirschman dissects the reactionary rhetoric that conservative thought has been deploying for 200 years. Finally, with an unexpected twist, he shows that progressives often adopt equally inflexible stances. The book serves as a unique – and highly enjoyable – guide through the murky waters of our contemporary public discourse.